TIPS ON SURVIVING AN AUTO ACCIDENT

In your car, is there even a flashlight? A survival blanket? A first-aid kit? Water or a way to collect and purify it? Answer "no" to any of those and you join the vast majority of motorists who are totally unprepared for even basic trouble. Here, we'll offer a few tips that may elevate you from helpless victim to thankful survivor.

1. Know that help is not on the way: The first step is to accept that you can depend on no one but yourself. In a real disaster — an earthquake, terrorist attack, tsunami or blizzard — help will not be on the way. Don't believe it? Dial 911 and say that there's a big, scary-looking dude pounding on your back door. Then call Domino's, and order a large pepperoni. Where I live, the pizza will be cold when, and if, the cops arrive. Now imagine a disaster where 10,000 people — or 100,000 — are calling for help. If you still think your cell phone will bring help in a timely manner, tattoo your Social Security number on your arm so your body can be identified later.
2. Don't be your own worst enemy: While fleeing Hurricane Rita, hundreds became stranded because they began their evacuation with near empty fuel tanks. With a full load of gas, a car will idle for an incredibly long time (don't ask how I know), so these people turned an urgent situation into a potential disaster. If your ride constantly breaks down, your gas gauge regularly hovers around "E," or you defer basic maintenance (such as replacing timing and fan belts, radiator and heater hoses, and rubber fuel lines), it's time to reallocate your priorities. Need we say "Wear your seatbelt"? Don't begin a survival experience with a spurting artery.
3. Prepare appropriately: The less hospitable the environment, the more preparation is required. Comparing the surface of the moon to Michigan's Upper Peninsula in February or Arizona's Sonoran desert in August creates distinctions without differences. But don't think you're off the hook because you live in a Sun Belt city: Even there you can die of exposure if forced to spend a cold March night (or a couple of nights!) in a car.
4. Keep warm and dry: Along with injury and dehydration, exposure to the cold is a major threat. Those who spend little time outdoors will discover that even when the days are warm, it gets very chilly at 4 a.m. An aluminum-coated Mylar (a.k.a. Space-brand) blanket costs $3, is about the size of cell phone, and will help retain body heat in cool weather and reflect sunlight in hot weather. In chilly climes, step up to the slightly bulkier Mylar emergency sleeping bag. Chemical hand- and body-warmers — often used by skiers — make brutal conditions tolerable. Also include a plastic pocket poncho.
   
   Your car can act as a shelter to protect you from the elements unless a vehicle wreck breaks your window. Mend that with a roll of duct tape and super-thick (3mm) "contractor" trash bags. (Duct tape and trash bags have myriad other uses.)
5. Water is critical: Without water, death can come within a few days, perhaps in a few hours in very hot weather. But water is heavy and bulky: One gallon — the subsistence level for two people for one day — weighs about 8 pounds. When driving in arid areas, carry water in robust containers: Grocery-store gallon jugs will break and ruin the rest of your kit. Several companies — Mainstay, Retort, Mayday — produce Coast Guard-approved emergency water in kid's juicebox-style pouches. For most of the U.S., it's OK to rely on ground water (or snow). But unless you pack your own water, you must have two lightweight containers (one for collecting water, the other for filtering the water into), a filter (cone-shaped coffee filter works), iodine water treatment crystals and, for snow, a heat source. Thusly equipped, you can make stream water safe in a half hour.
6. Light the darkness: Emergencies and darkness seem to go together. A flashlight is a critical element of a survival kit, but one of the new xenon-bulbed, lithium-batteried units (one brand is Surefire) produce such a powerful beam that it can double as a self-defense device: A blinded bad guy is not quite so bad. Also pack a conventional flashlight and spare batteries. Keep the batteries alive by leaving them in the original packaging or by installing them backward in the flashlight and taping over the terminals. Another solution is to pack a powerful DC-powered work light, which connects to your car's battery through the 12-volt outlet.
   
   Your kit should include some old-fashioned road flares, which can help prevent other motorists from striking your stranded vehicle and can double as excellent fire starters and signaling devices. In an area with no electricity, the flame from even a small candle can be seen from an incredible distance. Store candles and a book of waterproof matches in a tightly sealing plastic bag. Get a cigarette lighter, available at auto parts stores, as an alternate fire starter. Also consider a compact, lightweight magnesium fire starter, available at camping stores for about $6.
7. Be able to play doctor: It's a toss-up as to which is more difficult, fixing a modern car or treating an injured person. But in an emergency, you might be forced to play doctor. The best bet is to start with an off-the-shelf first-aid kit. In addition to standard items found in such kits, add a tube of Super Glue (for closing small wounds), latex surgical gloves, a topical antibiotic (like Neosporin), aspirin or other pain reliever, and an anti-diarrhea medication (such as Imodium tablets). Include critical personal medication and, if you're sensitive to bee stings or ant bites, an antihistamine such as Benadryl.
8. Fill your belly: In an emergency, many learn the difference between "hungry" and "starving." Without food, most folks will survive for a couple of weeks: Consider it the "disaster diet." But you'll be more comfortable if you pack a couple of military-style MREs (available from camping or survival stores) or cans of Spam (Hormel says it lasts "indefinitely" and it's unattractive to pilferers). One way to tell you're truly hungry: You're eating Spam.
9. Carry some extras: Roadside car repair is beyond the scope of this article, but a few tools will help in an emergency. Pack a container of radiator stop-leak and a can of tire inflator/sealant (two or three if you live in earthquake country, where lots of broken glass ends up on the street). Creative types will want to include a multipurpose tool (such as a Leatherman), a multiheaded screwdriver, a razor-blade-style box cutter, and a few cable ties. Duct tape can be used for anything from repairing a punctured radiator hose to securing bandages. Also include a pair of thick leather work gloves, a small fire extinguisher, an old pair of running shoes and toilet paper. Include some cash (in fives and tens) and a couple of dollars in quarters. Carrying your survival kit in a backpack will help you transport your supplies should you be forced to leave your vehicle.
10. Defend yourself: If TV coverage of Hurricane Katrina didn't convince you that a form of self-defense is a critical part of an emergency kit, you weren't paying attention. Except when thrown by a major league pitcher, a cell phone is not a self-defense device. Self-defense choices range from pepper spray to a police-style baton to a firearm. Whatever you choose, it's your responsibility to research how to legally transport and employ it. Even more critical: You must train and become proficient in its use. For most, a large "for use on bears" pepper spray is probably the best choice. There are certainly more aggressive forms of self-defense, but you'll have to check your state and local laws before incorporating anything involving high-speed projectiles. Also know that your car comes with a last-ditch self-defense device: a lug wrench.
    
    In addition to everything mentioned above, your car already comes with some survival equipment: The radio supplies emergency information; the rearview mirror can be removed and used as a signaling device. Headliner material can even be fashioned into tourniquets or bandages. When disaster strikes, take a good look around you, and think like MacGyver.

STOP * THINK * OBSERVE * PLAN

In An Emergency DO NOT PANIC
StopThinkObservePlan

STOP - Take a deep breath, sit down if possible, calm yourself and recognize that whatever has happened to get you here is past and cannot be undone. You are now in a survival situation and that means . . .

THINK - Your most important asset is your brain. Use it! Don't Panic! Think first, so you have no regrets. Move with deliberate care. Take no action, even a foot step, until you have thought it through . . .

OBSERVE - Take a look around you. Assess your situation and options. Take stock of your supplies, equipment, surroundings and the capabilities of fellow survivors . . .

PLAN - Prioritize your immediate needs and develop a plan to systematically deal with the emergency. Make a plan. Follow your plan. Adjust your plan only as necessary to deal with changing circumstances.

PRIORITIES:

1. Medical Care 2. Shelter & Fire 3. Signaling & Communication 4. Sustenance

Equipped To Survive™ - Immediate Action Survival Plan™ - http://www.equipped.org/stop.htm

One of the most important elements to survival is between your ears, your brain. DO NOT PANIC, use your wits and practice all elements of the 5 Basics before you may need to rely on them.

FIRE can purify water, cook food, signal rescuers, provide warmth, light and comfort, help keep predators at a distance, and can be a most welcome friend and companion. Each and every person who ventures into the Outdoors should have a minimum of two ways to start a fire with them, one on their person at all times and the other with their gear. A few small fires provides more heat than one large fire. Collect firewood you think you will need for the night and then collect the same amount again, experience shows you will need it. Conserve fuel by making a "star fire" where the ends of large logs meet in the fire only, push inward as more fuel is needed. Make a reflector from your SPACE BLANKET on the back wall of a shelter to reflect heat of your survival fire to your back, sit between fire and back shelter wall.

SHELTER is the means by which you protect your body from excess exposure from the sun, cold, wind, rain or snow. Anything that takes away or adds to your overall body temperature can be your enemy. Clothing is the first line of shelter protection, have the right clothes for the right environment. Always have a hat. Try and keep the layer closest to your body dry. Layers trap air and are warmer than one thick garment. Do not expend energy making a shelter if nature provides one. Practice building a quick lean-to shelter in case you can not find your campsite, do not wait until you need to make one. Use a SPACE BLANKET to prevent dampness or to insulate your shelter or to wrap yourself up in a sitting or squat position to concentrate your body core heat.

SIGNALING is having available the means and ability to alert any and all potential rescuers that you are in need of HELP. Fire, flashing light, bright color markers, flags, mirrors, whistles all will help you be found. Three fires in a triangular form are a recognized distress signal. Carefully bank your signal fires to prevent igniting surrounding area. Use regular signal mirrors only when you can see a plane, or people in the distance. Use EMERGENCY STROBE light at night to help attract attention from those that may be in the area. Make smoky fire with organic material over the fire during the day to attract attention. Lay out ground to air signal in open field, S.O.S. from rocks, logs or colored clothing, whatever will be seen against the background. Most search and rescue parties use aircraft as a primary method of sighting.

FOOD / WATER are vital towards your survival. Ration your sweat not your water intake. Try to drink only in the cool of the evening. You can live up to three days without water. DO NOT eat plants you do not know. Never drink urine. Always assume that you will need extra food and water when you plan your trip. Pack energy bars and candy in your pockets at all times, just in case. If possible boil all water 10 minutes plus one minute for every 1000 feet above sea level. Strain water through your handkerchief to remove large particles. Try to drink only in the cool of the evening. Never wait until you are without water to collect it. Have some poly zip bags to collect and store water. Never eat any wild berries that you are not sure of what they are. You can catch rainwater in your SPACE BLANKET by laying it out in a trench.

FIRST AID is not just the basic medical needs, it is the primary way in which you act to survive. DO NOT PANIC, remain calm and do what you have to do to take care of YOU. STOP means Sit, Think, Observe, and Plan. It is the most intelligent thing you can do when you realize you are lost or stranded. The most important element is to keep your brain functioning rationally, this is basic first aid for survival. Analyze your needs before every trip, create a medical checklist and carry a small personal kit with you at all times. Most survival situations require only dressing for small cuts, bruises and personal medication needs, make sure you know what you have with you and how to use it. Do not over pack, pack what you feel you will need to carry with you at all times. Concentrate on being found, pack a picture of your family in with your gear to remind you of the reasons to remain calm and to survive. Prevent hypothermia by insulating yourself in a SPACE BLANKET.

62 MISSING

A total of 62 people are missing at sea and this number may grow, said Police Commander Chris Kelley, this morning, as there is great difficulty in trying to reconcile passenger figures after the sinking of the MV Princess Ashika in Ha'apai waters late on August 5.

"We believe a more accurate manifest was on board and was lost so there could have been more persons on board who have not been identified," he said, describing the sinking as, "a terrible tragedy and major disaster in Tonga ... that strikes right at the heart of a nation of sea-faring people".

In his first press conference, the Commander stated of today, the Tonga Police and the Shipping Company believed that 117 persons were on board when the vessel left Tongatapu on Wednesday evening, August 5. The final manifest, in possession of a crew member, was lost with the vessel.

He said of the 62 people who are unaccounted were
4 male crews and 58 passengers identified as:
19 male passengers;
21 female passengers;
7 children, including babies;
11 people have not been identified as to whether they are males or females.

The Commander said that 62 people who are unaccounted for was based on the revised ship's manifest.

"Our focus is still on rescuing people. Not all the liferafts are accounted for and there was ample safety equipment on board,. . . but one liferaft can be seen snagged underwater at location of the sinking," he said.

"The Tonga Police are currently coodinating a major maritime search and rescue operation in the Ha'apai group of islands.

"Over 77% of the search pattern area had been completed by the Orion at nightfall on August 6," he said.

"But as time goes by there less and less chance of more survivors being picked up।"

Survivors

There are 53 known survivors, all males;, and two confirmed dead, one European male and one Polynesian female, bringing the number accounted for to 55.

There are 58 passengers and four crew unaccounted for, including a Japanese crew member.

He said of the 25 survivors and two dead, only 12 were listed on the manifest and 15 were not.

Of the two dead, the unidentified female body was found by a fishing boat and brought to Nuku'alofa where is now kept at Vaiola Hospital morgue. The body of the European male, believed to be that of a Britishman who was living in New Zealand, is still being kept at Niu'ui Hospital morgue and will be brought down to the capital today. Commander Kelly said the next of kin had not been notified, and efforts were being made to establish identity of both the deceased.

The commander said they would not release an official list of the survivors until they had properly determined the names. "there are changing patterns of identity.

"The operation will continue until we have accounted for and identified all on board," he said.

The 24 hour telephone hotlines for families of the passengers and crew are:

Police hotlines
+676 28681
+676 27154
+676 24921

National Emergency Centre hotlines:
+676 28004
+676 28005

People who know their family members were passengers, or who put people on the MV Ashika should contact these numbers.

Music 'enabled human survival'

Scientists in Germany have published details of flutes dating back to the time that modern humans began colonising Europe, 35,000 years ago.

The flutes are the oldest musical instruments found to date.

The researchers say in the Journal Nature that music was widespread in pre-historic times.

They also suggest that music enabled our species to socialise which may have given our species the edge over Neanderthals who became extinct.

The team from Tubingen University have published details of three flutes found in the Hohle Fels cavern in southwest Germany.

The cavern is already well known as a site for signs of early human efforts; in May, members of the same team unveiled a Hohle Fels find that could be the world's oldest Venus figure.

The most well-preserved of the flutes is made from a vulture's wing bone, measuring 20cm long with five finger holes and two "V"-shaped notches on one end of the instrument into which the researchers assume the player blew.

The archaeologists also found fragments of two other flutes carved from ivory that they believe was taken from the tusks of mammoths.

Creative origins

The find brings the total number of flutes discovered from this era to eight, four made from mammoth ivory and four made from bird bones.

According to Professor Nicholas Conard of Tubingen University, this suggests that the playing of music was common as far back as 40,000 years ago when modern humans spread across Europe.

"It's becoming increasingly clear that music was part of day-to-day life," he said.

"Music was used in many kinds of social contexts: possibly religious, possibly recreational - much like we use music today in many kinds of settings."

The researchers also suggest that not only was music widespread much earlier than previously thought, but so was humanity's creative spirit.

"The modern humans that came into our area already had a whole range of symbolic artifacts, figurative art, depictions of mythological creatures, many kinds of personal ornaments and also a well-developed musical tradition," Professor Conard explained.

These flutes provide yet more evidence of the sophistication of the people that lived at that time Professor Chris Stringer Natural History Museum

The team argues that the emergence of art and culture so early might explain why early modern humans survived and Neanderthals, with whom they co-existed at the time, became extinct.

"Music could have contributed to the maintenance of larger social networks, and thereby perhaps have helped facilitate the demographic and territorial expansion of modern humans relative to a culturally more conservative and demographically more isolated Neanderthal populations," they wrote.

That is a view supported by Professor Chris Stringer, a human origins researcher at the Natural History Museum in London.

"These flutes provide yet more evidence of the sophistication of the people that lived at that time and the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between them and Neanderthals," he said.

"I think the occurrence of these flutes and animal and human figurines about 40,000 years ago implies that the traditions that produced them must go back even further in the evolutionary history of modern humans - perhaps even into Africa more than 50,000 years ago.

"But that evidence has still to be discovered."

Sole known survivor of plane crash, 14,

MORONI, Comoros - Despite a fractured collarbone, a teenage girl clung to the wreckage of a plane for more than 13 hours before rescuers found her floating in the Indian Ocean, authorities said. The only known survivor of the crash, she was being flown back to Paris last night.

The Yemenia Airbus 310 jet was carrying 153 people when it went down in howling winds early Tuesday in the sea north of the Comoros Islands.

French officials late yesterday retracted claims that one of the plane’s black boxes had been found. French Commander Bertrand Mortemard de Boisse said that a signal detected from the debris of Yemenia Flight IY626 was from a distress beacon and not from one of the plane’s black boxes.

The flight data and cockpit voice recorders in those black boxes are crucial to help investigators determine the cause of the crash off this former French colony.

An Associated Press reporter saw 14-year-old Bahia Bakari in a Comoros hospital yesterday as she was visited by government officials. She was conscious with bruises on her face and gauze bandages on her right elbow and right foot. Her hair was pulled back and she was covered by a blue blanket but she gamely shook the hand of Alain Joyandet, France’s minister for international cooperation.

Her uncle, Joseph Yousouf, said Bahia also had a fractured collarbone.

“She is a courageous young girl,’’ Joyandet said, adding that Bahia held on to a piece of the plane from 1:30 a.m. Tuesday to 3 p.m., then signaled a passing boat, which rescued her.

“She really showed an absolutely incredible physical and moral strength,’’ he said. “She is physically out of danger, she is evidently very traumatized.’’

The girl was traveling with her mother, who is feared dead. They had left Paris on Monday night to see family in the Comoros.

“She’s asking for her mother,’’ Yousouf said. For fear of upsetting Bahia, Yousouf told her that her mother is in the room next door.

Joyandet said the girl left last night on a chartered executive jet and would be put in a Paris hospital upon arrival.

The passengers on the downed plane were flying the last leg of a journey from Paris and Marseille to Comoros, with a stop in Yemen to change planes. Most were from Comoros, 66 were French citizens.

The girl’s father told French radio his oldest daughter could “barely swim’’ but managed to hang on. Kassim Bakari, who spoke with the girl by phone, said Bahia was ejected and found herself beside the plane.

“She couldn’t feel anything, and found herself in the water. She heard people speaking around her but she couldn’t see anyone in the darkness,’’ Bakari said on France’s RTL radio. “She’s a very timid girl, I never thought she would escape like that.’’

Sergeant Said Abdilai told Europe 1 radio that Bahia was too weak to grasp the life ring rescuers threw to her, so he jumped into the sea to get her. He said rescuers gave the trembling girl warm water with sugar.

Said Mohammed, a nurse at El Mararouf hospital in the Comoros capital of Moroni, said the girl was doing well.

The crash a few miles off this island nation came two years after aviation officials reported equipment faults with the plane, an aging Airbus 310 flying the last leg of a Yemenia airlines flight from Paris and Marseille to the Comoros, with a stop in Yemen to change planes.

A top French official said the Airbus 310 crashed in deep water 9 miles north of the Comoran coast and 21 miles from the Moroni airport.

The French air accident investigation agency BEA was sending a team of safety investigators and Airbus specialists to Comoros, an archipelago of three main islands 1,800 miles south of Yemen, between Africa’s southeastern coast and the island of Madagascar.

The London-based International Federation of Air Line Pilots Association said the plane may have been attempting a go-around in rough weather for another approach when it hit the sea.

The 5 Basic Survival Skills

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Acquiring survival skills is an ongoing process that will last for your entire life. There is always more to learn and experience, which is part of the fun of being a survivor.

As your survival expertise grows the knowledge and abilities you gain are often useful in other areas. For example survivors prepare ahead of time, and they are experts in the art of ingenuity and inventiveness. Excellent attributes for anyone.

The possible environments and situations you could find yourself in are innumerable. Although each situation has its particular requirements for successfully surviving, in the final analysis it is mastery of five basic survival skills that are essential. Proficiency and preparedness in these 5 basic skills will give you the edge and put you on your way toward becoming a talented survivor.

First Basic Survival Skill - Fire

Knowing how to build a fire is the best survival skill you can have. Fire provides warmth, light, and comfort so you get on with the business of survival. Even if you do not have adequate clothing a good fire can allow you to survive in the coldest of environments.

Fire keeps away the creatures that go bump in the night and so you can have the peace of mind and rest you need. And that is not all. Fire will cook your food and purify your water, both excellent attributes when you want to stay healthy when potential disease causing organisms are lurking about. Fire will dry your clothing and even aid in the making of tools and keeping pesky insects at bay.

But even that is not all. Fire and smoke can be used for signaling very long distances.

Always have at least two, and preferably three, ways of making a fire at you immediate disposal. With waterproof matches, a butane lighter, and a magnesium fire starter or firesteel you should be able to create a fire anytime anywhere no matter how adverse the condtions.

So the lesson here is to learn the art of fire craft. Practice and become an expert. Your ability to create a fire is perhaps the most visible mark of an experienced survivor.

Second Basic Survival Skill - Shelter

Shelter protects your body from the outside elements. This includes heat, cold, rain, snow, the sun, and wind. It also protects you from insects and other creatures that seek to do you harm.

The survival expert has several layers of shelter to think about. The first layer of shelter is the clothing you choose to wear. Your clothing is of vital importance and must be wisely chosen according to the environment you are likely to find yourself in. Be sure to dress in layers in order to maximize your ability to adapt to changing conditions.

The next layer of shelter is the one you may have to build yourself, a lean-to or debris hut perhaps. This is only limited by your inventiveness and ingenuity. If the situation requires, your shelter can be insulated with whatever is at hand for the purpose. Being prepared, you may have a space blanket or tarp with you, in which case creating a shelter should be relatively easy.

Before you are in need of making a survival shelter, be sure to practice and experiment with a variety of materials and survival scenarios on a regular basis. Should the need arise you will be glad you did.

Third Basic Survival Skill - Signaling

Signaling allows you to make contact with people who can rescue you without having to be in actual physical contact with them. There are a variety of ways to signal for help. These include using fire and smoke, flashlights, bright colored clothing and other markers, reflective mirrors, whistles, and Personal Locator Beacons. Three of anything is considered a signal for help: 3 gunshots, 3 blows on a whistle, three sticks in the shape of a triangle.

In a pinch, your ingenuity in devising a way to signal potential help could very well save your life.

Fourth Basic Survival Skill - Food and Water

Whenever you plan an excursion be sure to always bring extra food and water. Having more on hand than you think you need will give you that extra measure of safety should something happened and you have to stay out longer than anticipated.

It is important that you know how to ration your water and food as well as find more in the environment in which you find yourself. You can go without food for a number of days, but living without water for even a few days will cause your efficiency to drop dramatically.

If at all possible, boil any water you find in order to kill disease organisms that may be in even the cleanest looking water. Filtering or chemically treating water is second best.

Fifth Basic Survival Skill - First Aid

Always bring along your first aid kit and a space blanket. Most injuries you are likely to encounter in the wilderness are relatively minor scrapes, cuts, bruises, and burns. Larger injuries are going to need better facilities than that which you have at your disposal, which means you will need outside help.

Panic is your number one enemy when you are in any emergency situation, be it injured, lost, or stranded. What you need in these situations is first aid for the mind.

Think STOP:
Sit
Think
Observe
Plan

Your best defense in any emergency is your ability to think and make correct decisions. Building a fire is often the beginning first aid for the mind. Doing so will keep you busy and provide an uplift from the warmth, light and protection fire provides.

Practice Survival Skills

The expert survival skills and know-how you have accumulated through practice and experience will serve you well. When the real thing comes along, you will be prepared and adept at staying alive. Where others have perished, as a survivor you will know you can make it. And that is a good feeling to be sure.

HOW TO PURIFY WATER

Lost in the wilderness near a river or lake, half the battle is over. In order to safely drink this water, you need to purify it. Boiling is the best and easiest way to make fresh water safe -- 10 minutes at a steady boil is a good rule of thumb. Of course, boiling water means you need a source of fire and a container of some kind. If you don't have a container, you can probably find one or more of these items:

• Aluminum can
• Tin can
• Large shell
• Plastic bottle
• Glass jar

Use your shirt or other cloth to filter out large bits of sediment before boiling. Believe it or not, plastic bottles do work for boiling. One method is to completely fill the bottle with water, cap it and drop it into some hot coals. The lack of air in the bottle should keep it from melting. If you don't have enough water to fill the bottle, suspend it above the fire with rope or vine so the flames just touch the bottom. The risk of boiling in a plastic bottle is that your bottle and main collection device may be gone. If you can't start a fire, leave the water in the sun in a clear container to help kill bacteria.

Purification tablets are another way to purify water. You can find them at hardware stores, also many companies manufacture them, and they're mandatory in any survival kit. Purification tablets use either iodine or chlorine to treat the water. Many people are allergic to iodine, so make sure you know if you are before you use them. Murky water often needs more than one tablet to make it safe, and any tablet needs at least 30 minutes to be fully effective. Like with boiling, it's best to give the water some type of an initial straining. Warm water is also safer to drink, so if it's from a cold mountain stream, allow it to heat up a little in the sun first.

Drop the tablet in the bottle, swish some of the water onto the cap and the mouth's threads. After boiling it or treating it with tablets, pour the water back and forth between two containers. It will add oxygen and improve taste.

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